AESCHINES (Αἰσχίνης ὁ Σωκρατικός), an Athenian philosopher and rhetorician, son of a sausage-seller, or, according to other accounts, of Lysanias (Diog. Laert. ii. 60; Suidas, s. v.Αἰσχίνης), and a disciple, although by some of his contemporaries held an unworthy one, of Socrates. From the account of Laertius, he appears to have been the familiar friend of his great master, who said that " the sausageseller's son only knew how to honour him." The same writer has preserved a tradition that it was Aeschines, and not Crito, who offered to assist Socrates in his escape from prison.
The greater part of his life was spent in abject poverty, which gave rise to the advice of Socrates to him, " to borrow money of himself, by diminishing his daily wants." After the death of his mas­ter, according to the charge of Lysias apud Athen. xiii. p. 611, e. f.), he kept a perfumer's shop with borrowed money, and presently becoming bankrupt, was obliged to leave Athens. Whether from necessity or inclination, he followed the fashion of the day, and retired to the Syracusan court, where the friendship of Aristippus might console him for the contempt of Plato. He remained there until the expulsion of the younger Dionysius, and on his return, finding it useless to attempt a rivalry with his great contemporaries, he gave private lectures. One of the charges which his opponents delighted to repeat, and which by association of ideas constituted him a sophist in the eyes of Plato and his followers, was that of receiving money for his instructions. Another story was invented that these dialogues were really the work of Socrates; and Aristippus, either from joke or malice, publicly charged Aeschines with the theft while he was reading them at Megara. Plato is related by Hegesander (apud Athen. xi. p. 507, c.) to have stolen from him his solitary pupil Xenocrates.
The three dialogues, Περὶ ἀρετῆς, εἰ διδακτόν, ᾿Ερυξίας ἢ περὶ πλούτου, ᾿Αξίοχος ἢ περὶ Θανάτου, which have come down to us under the name of Aeschines are not genuine remains: it is even doubted whether they are the same works which the ancients acknowledged as spurious. They have been edited by Fischer, the third edition of which (8vo. Lips. 1786) contains the criticisms of Wolf, and forms part of a volume of spurious Platonic dialogues (Simonis Socratici ut videtur dialogi quatuor) by Böckh, Heidel. 1810.
The genuine dialogues, from the slight mention made of them by Demetrius Phalereus, seem to have been full of Socratic irony. Hermogenes, Περὶ ᾿Ιδεῶν, considers Aeschines as superior to Xenophon in elegance and purity of style. A long and amusing passage is quoted by Cicero from him. (De Invent, i. 31; Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 60-64, and the authorities collected by Fischer.) [B. J.] (CHAPITRE 93)

ANAXIPPUS (᾿Ανάξιππος ὁ κωμῳδιοποίος), an Athenian comic poet of the new comedy, was contemporary with Antigonus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, and flourish ed about B. C. 303. (Suidas, s. v.) We have the titles of four of his plays, and perhaps of one more. (Meineke, i. pp. 469 - 70.) [P. S.] (CHAPITRE 92) 

Ἀνάξιππος, κωμικὸς τῆς νέας κωμῳδίας, ἤκμασεν ἐπὶ Ἀντιγόνου καὶ Δημητρίου τοῦ Πολιορκητοῦ.

ARISTARCHUS (᾿Αρίσταρχος) of Tegea, a tragic poet at Athens, was contemporary with Euripides, and flourished about 454 B. C. He lived to the age of a hundred. Out of seventy tragedies which he exhibited, only two obtained the prize. (Suidas, s. v.; Euseb. Chron. Armen.° Nothing remains of his works; except a few lines (Stobaeus, Tit. 63. § 9, tit. 120. § 2; Athen, xiii. p. 612, f.), and the titles of three of his plays namely, the ᾿Ασκληπίος, which he is said to have written and named after the god in gratitude for his recovery from illness (Suidas), the ᾿Αχιλλεύς which Ennius translated into Latin (Festus, s. v. prolato aere), and the Τάνταλος . (Stobaeus, ii 1. § L) [P. S.] (CHAPITRE 95) 

DEMETRIUS (Δημήτριος ὁ Μάγνης). Of magnesia, a Greek grammarian, a con­temporary of Cicero and Atticus. (Cic. ad Alt. viii. 11, iv. 11.) He had, in Cicero's recollection, sent Atticus a work of his on concord, περὶ ὁμονοίας , which Cicero also was anxious to read. A second work of his, which is often referred to, was of an historical and philological nature, and treated of poets and other authors who bore the same name. (Περὶ ὁμονύμων ποιητῶν καὶ συγγραφέων; Diog. Laërt. i. 38, 79, 112, ii. 52, 56, v. 3, 75, 89, vi. 79, 84, 88, vii. 169, 185, viii. 84, ix. 15, 27, 35, x. 13; Plut. Vit. X Orat. pp. 844, b., 847, a., Demosth. 15, 27, 28, 30; Harpocrat. s. v. ᾿Ισαῖος, and many other passages ; Athen. xiii. p. 611; Dionys. Deinarch. 1.) This important work, to judge from what is quoted from it, contained the lives of the persons treated of, and a critical examination of their merits. (CHAPITRE 92)

DIOTIMOS (Διότιμος). A Stoic philosopher, who is said to have accused Epicurus of profligacy, and to have forged fifty letters, professing to have been written by Epicurus, to prove it. (Diog. Laërt. x. 3 ; Menag. ad loc.) According to Athenaeus, who is evidently alluding to the same story in a passage where Διότιμος apparently should be substituted for Θεότιμος , he was convicted of the forgery, at the suit of Zeno the Epicurean, and put to death. (Ath. xiii. p. 611, b.) We learn from Clement of Alexandria (Strom. ii. 21), that he considered happiness or wellbeing εὐεστῷ  to consist, not in any one good, but in the perfect accumulation of blessings (παντέλεια τῶν ἀγαθῶν), which looks like a departure from strict Stoicism to the more sober view of Aristotle. (Eth. Nicom. i. 7, 8.) [E. E.] (CHAPITRE 92)

CLEIDEMUS (Κλείδημος), an ancient Athenian author. Meursius is inclined to believe (Peisistr. c. 2), that the name, where it occurs in Plutarch, Athenaeus, and others, has been substituted, by an error of the copyists, for Cleitodemus, who is mentioned by Pausanias (x. 15) as the most ancient writer of Athenian history. We find in Athenaeus the following works ascribed to Cleidemus:—
1. ᾿Εξηγητικός . (Athen. ix. p. 410, a.) This is probably the same work which is referred to by Suidas (s. v. ῞Υης ). Casaubon (ad Athen. I. c.) and Vossius (de Hist. Graec. p. 418, ed. Westermann) think that it was a sort of lexicon ; but it seems rather to have been an antiquarian treatise, in verse, on religious rites and ceremonies. (Comp. Ruhnken, ad Tim. s. v. ᾿Εξηγηταί .) 
2. ᾿Ατθίς  (Athen. vi. p. 235, a.), the subject of which seems to have been the history and antiquities of Attica. It is probably the work quoted by Plu tarch (Thes. 19, 27), who mentions prolixity as the especial characteristic of the author. 
3. Πρωτογονία ., also apparently an antiquarian work. (Athen. xiv. p. 660, a.) 
4. Νόστοι, a passage from the eighth book of which is referred to by Athenaeus (xii. p. 609, c.), relating to the first restoration of Peisistratus and the marriage of Hipparchus with Phya. (Comp. Herod, i. 60.) We cannot fix the exact period at which Cleidemus flourished, but it must have been subsequently to B. C. 479, since Plutarch refers to his account of the battle of Plataea. (Plut. Arist. 19.) See further references in Vossius (I. c.). [E. E.]  (CHAPITRE 89)

HIPPIAS  (῾Ιππίας ὁ σοφιστής) The Sophist, was a native of Elis, and a son of Diopeithes. He was a disciple of Hegesidamus (Suid. s. v.), and the contemporary of Protagoras and Socrates. Owing to his talent and skill, his fellow-citizens availed themselves of his services in political matters, and in a diplomatic mission to Sparta. (Plat. Hipp. maj. pp. 281. a, 286. a; Philostr. Vit. Soph. i. 11.) But he was in every respect like the other sophists of the time: he travelled about in various towns and districts of Greece for the purpose of acquiring wealth and celebrity, by teaching and public speaking. His character as a sophist, his vanity, and his boastful arrogance, are well described in two dialogues of Plato, the ῾Ιππίας μείζων end the ῾Ιππίας ἐλάττων (Hippias major and Hippias minor). The former treats of the question about the beautiful, and in a manner which gives ample scope for putting the knowledge and presumption of Hippias in a ludicrous light; the other handles the deficiency of our knowledge, and exposes the ridiculous vanity of the sophist. The latter dialogue is considered by Schleiermacher and Ast to be spurious. Ast even goes so far as to reject the Hippias major also; but it is not easy to get over the difficulty which arises from the fact of Aristotle (Metaphys. v. 29) and Cicero (de Orat. iii. 32) mentioning it, though without expressly ascribing it to Plato ; but however this may be, the dialogues must at any rate have been written by a person and at a time when there was no difficulty in forming a correct estimate of the character of Hippias.  If  we compare the accounts of Plato with those given by other writers, it cannot be denied that Hippias was a man of very extensive knowledge, that he occupied him­self not only with rhetorical, philosophical, and political studies, but was also well versed in poetry, music, mathematics, painting and sculpture, nay, that to a certain extent he had a practical skill in the ordinary arts of life, for he used to boast of wear­ing on his body nothing that he had not made him­self with his own hands, such as his seal-ring, his cloak, and shoes. (Plat. Hipp. maj. p. 285. c, Hipp. min. p. 368. b, Protag. p. 315. c ; Philostr. I. c.; Themist. Orat. xxix. p. 345. d.) But it is at the same time evident that his knowledge of all these things was of a superficial kind, that he did not enter into the details of any particular art or science, and that he was satisfied with certain generalities, which enabled him to speak on everything without a thorough knowledge of any. This arrogance, combined with ignorance, is the main cause which provoked Plato to his severe criticism of Hippias, in which he is the more justified, as the sophist enjoyed a very extensive reputation, and thus had a proportionate influence upon the education of the youths of the higher classes. His great forte seems to have consisted in delivering extempore show speeches; and once his sophistic vanity led him to declare that he would travel to Olympia, and there deliver before the assembled Greeks an oration on any subject that might be proposed to him (Plat. Hipp. min. p. 363) ; and Philostratus in fact speaks of several such orations delivered at Olympia, and which created great sensation. Such speeches must have been published by Hippias, but no specimen has come down to us. Socrates (ap. Plal Hipp. min. p. 368) speaks of epic poetiy, tragedies, dithyrambs, and various orations, as the productions of Hippias; nay, his literary vanity seems not to have scrupled to write on grammar, music, rhythm, harmony, and a variety of other subjects. (Plat. Hipp. maj. p. 285, &c. ; comp. Philostr. 1. c.; Plut. Num. 1, 23; Dion Chrys. Orat. Ixxi. p. 625.) He seems to have been especially fond of choosing antiquarian and mythical subjects for his show speeches. Athenaeus (xiii. p. 609) mentions a work of Hippias under the title Συναγωγή which is otherwise unknown. An epigram of his is preserved in Pausanias (v. 25, also in Brunck, Analect. ii. 57). His style and language are not censured for any thing particular by the ancients. (Comp. Groen van Prinsterer, Prosop. Platon. p. 91, &c.; Geel, Hist. Crit. Soph. p. 181, &c. ; F. Osann, Der Sophist Hippias als Archjaeolog, in the Rhein. Mus. for 1843, p. 495, &c.) 

Ἱππίας, Διοπείθους, Ἠλεῖος, σοφιστὴς καὶ φιλόσοφος, μαθητὴς Ἡγησιδάμου, ὃς τέλος ὡρίζετο τὴν αὐτάρκειαν. ἔγραψε πολλά. (SUIDAS)

ION (῎Ιων). Of Chios, was one of the five Athenian tragic poets of the canon, and also a composer of other kinds of poetry ; and, moreover, a prose writer, both of history and philosophy. He is mentioned by Strabo (xiv. p. 645) among the celebrated men of Chios. He was the son of Orthomenes, and was surnamed the son of Xuthus : the latter was probably a nickname given him by the comic poets, in allusion to Xuthus, the father of the mythical Ion. (Schol. ad Aristoph. Pac. 830 ; Suid. Eudoc. Harpocr. s. v.) When very young he went to Athens, where he enjoyed the society of Cimon, of whom he left laudatory notices in some of his works (probably in the ὑπομνήματα), which are quoted by Plutarch. (Cim. 5, 9, 16.) The same writer informs us that Ion severely criticised Pericles (Peric. 5, 28), who is said to have been his rival in love. (Ath. x. p. 436, f.) Ion was familiarly acquainted with Aeschylus, if we may believe an anecdote related by Plutarch (De Prefect, in Virt. 8, p. 79), but he did not come forward as a tragedian till after that poet's death. We also learn from Ion himself (in his ἐπιδημίαι, ap. Ath. xiii. p. 603, e.) that he met Sophocles at Chios, when the latter was commander of the expedition against Samos, B. C. 440. His first tragedy was brought out in the 82d Olympiad (B. C. 452) ; he is mentioned as third in competition with Euripides and lophon, in Ol. 87, 4 (B. C. 429 - 428); and he died before B. C. 421, as appears from the Peace of Aristophanes (830), which was brought out in that year. Only one victory of Ion's is mentioned, on which occasion, it is said, having gained the dithyrambic and tragic prizes at the same time, he presented every Athenian with a pitcher of Chian wine. (Schol. ad Aristoph. I.c. ; Suid. s. v.᾿Αθήναιος ; Ath. i. p. 3, f. ; Eustath. ad Hom. p. 1454, 24.) Hence it would seem that he was a man of considerable wealth.
The number of his tragedies is variously stated at 12, 30, and 40. We have the titles and a few fragments of 11, namely, ᾿Αγαμέμνων, ᾿Αλκμήνη, ᾿Αργεῖοι, Μέγα Δρᾶμα, Φρουρίοι ἢ Καινεύς, Φοῖνιξ δεύτερος, Τεῦκρος, ᾿Ομφάλη, Εὐρυτίδαι and Λαέρτης, of which the ᾿Ομφάλη was a satyric drama. Longinus (33) describes the style of Ion's tragedies as marked by petty refinements and want of boldness, and he adds an expression which shows the distance which there was, in the opinion of the ancients, between the great tragedians and the best of their rivals, that no one in his senses would compare the value of the Oedipus with that of all the tragedies of Ion taken together. Nevertheless, he was greatly admired, chiefly, it would seem, for a sort of elegant wit. Περιβοήτος δὲ ἐγένετο, says the scholiast. There are some beautiful passages in the extant fragments of his tragedies. Commenta­ries were written upon him by Arcesilaus, Batton of Sinope, Didymus, Epigenes, and even by Ari-starchus. (Diog. Laërt. iv. 31; Ath. x. p. 436, f, xi. p. 468, c, d, xiv. p. 634, c, e.)
Besides his tragedies, we are told by the scho­liast on Aristophanes, that Ion also wrote lyric poems, comedies, epigrams, paeans, hymns, scholia, and elegies. Respecting his comedies, a doubt has been raised, on account of the confusion between comedy and tragedy, which is so frequent in the writings of the grammarians ; but, in the case of so universal a writer as Ion, the probability seems to be in favour of the scholiast's statement. Of his elegies we have still some remnants in the Greek Anthology. (Brunck, Anal. vol. i. p. 161.)
His prose works, mentioned by the scholiast on Aristophanes, are one called πρεσβευτικόν, which some thought spurious; κτίσις, κοσμολογικός, ὑπομνήματα, and some others, which are not specified. The nature of the first of these works is not known. The full title of the κτίσις was Χίου κτίσις: it was an historical work, in the Ionic dialect, and apparently in imitation of Herodotus : it was probably the same as the συγγραφή, which is quoted by Pausanias (vii. 4. § 6.) The κοσμολογικός is probably the same as the philosophical work, entitled τριαγμός (or τριαγμοί), which seems to have been a treatise on the constitution of things according to the theory of triads, and which some ancient writers ascribed to Orpheus. The ὑπομνήματα are by some writers identified with the ἐπιδημίαι  or ἐκδημητικός (Pollux, ii. 88.), which contained either an account of his own travels, or of the visits of great men to Chios. (Bentley, Epist. ad Joh. Millium, Chronico Joannis Malelae subjecta, Oxon. 1691, Venet. 1733; Opusc. pp.494 - 510 ed. Lips.; C. Nieberding, De lonis Chii Vita, Moribus et Studiis Doctrinae, with the fragments, Lips. 1836; Köpke, De lonis Poetae Vita et Fragmentis, Berol. 1836, and in the Zeitschrift für Alterthumswissenschaft, 1836, pp.589 - 605; Welcker, die Griech. Trag. pp. 938 - 958; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. ii. pp. 307, 308; Kayser, Hist. Crit. Trag. Graec. Gotting. 1845, pp. 175- 190.) (CHAPITRE 81) 

NICANDER (Νίκανδρος). The author of two Greek poems that are still extant, and of several others that have been lost. His father's name was Damnaeus (Eudoc. Viol. ap. Villoison's Anecd. Gr. vol. i. p. 308, and an anonymous Greek life of Nicander), though Suidas (probably by some over­sight) calls him Xenophanes (s. v. Νίκανδρος), and he was one of the hereditary priests of Apollo Clarius [CLARIUS], to which dignity Nicander himself succeeded (comp. Nicand. Alexiph. v. 11). He was born at the small town of Claros, near Colophon in Ionia, as he intimates himself (Ther, in fine), whence he is frequently called Colophonius (Cic. de Orat. i. 16 ; Suid. &c..), and there is a Greek epigram (Athhol. Gr. ix. 213) complimenting Colophon on being the birth-place of Homer and Nicander. He was said by some ancient authors to have been born in Aetolia, but this probably arose from his having passed some time in that country, and written a work on its natural and political history. He has been supposed to have been a contemporary, of Aratus and Callimachus in the third century B. C., but it is more probable that he lived nearly a century later, in the reign of Ptolemy V. (or Epiphanes) who died B. C. 181, and that the Attains to whom he dedicated one of his lost poems was the last king of Pergamus of that name, who began.to reign B. C. 138 (Anon. Gr. Life of Nicander, and Anon. Gr. Life of Aratus). If these two dates are correct, Nicander may be supposed to have been in reputation for about fifty years cir. B. C. 185 - 135 (see Clinton's Fasti Hell. vol. iii.). He was a physician and grammarian, as well as a poet, and his writings seem to have been rather numerous and on various subjects.
The longest of his poems that remains is named Θηριακά, and consists of nearly a thousand hexameter lines. It is dedicated to a person named Hermesianax, who must not be confounded with the poet of that name. It treats (as the name implies) of venomous animals and the wounds in­flicted by them, and contains some curious and interesting zoological passages, together with numerous absurd fables, which do not require to be particularly specified here. Haller calls it " longa, incondita, et nullius fidei farrago" (Biblioth. Botan.). His other poem, called ᾿λεξιφάρμακα consists of more than six hundred lines, written in the same metre, is dedicated to a person named Protagoras, and treats cf poisons and their antidotes : of this work also Haller remarks, "descriptio vix ulla, symptomata fuse recensentur, et magna farrago et incondita plantarum potissimum alexipharmacarum subjicitur." A full analysis of the medical portions of both these works may be found in Mr. Adams's Commentary on the fifth book of Paulus Aegineta. Among the ancients his authority in all matters relating to toxicology seems to have been considered high. His works are frequently quoted by Pliny (H. N. xx. 13, 96, xxii. 15, 32, xxvi. 66, xxx. 25, xxxii. 22, xxxvi. 25, xxxvii. 11, 28), Galen (de Hippocr. et Plat. Decr. ii. 8, vol. v. p. 275, de Locis Affect, ii. 5, vol. viii. p. 133, de Simpl. Medicam. Temper, ac Facult. ix. 2. § 10, x. 2. § 16, vol. xii. pp. 204, 289, de Ther. ad Pis.cc. 9, 13, vol. xiv. pp. 239, 265, Comment, in Hippocr. " De Artic." iii. 38, vol. xviii. pt. i. p. 537), Athenaeus (pp. 66, 312, 366, 649, &c.), and other ancient writers ; and Dioscorides, Aetius, and other medical authors have made frequent use of his works. Plutarch, Diphilus and others wrote commentaries on his "Theriaca" [DIPHiLUS], Marianus paraphrased it in iambic verse [MARIANUS], and Eutecnius wrote a paraphrase in prose of his two principal poems, which is still extant. On the subject of his poetical merits the ancient writers were not well agreed ; for though (as we have seen) a writer in the Greek Anthology compliments Colophon for being the birth-place of Homer and Nicander, and Cicero praises (de Orat. i. 16) the poetical manner in which in his " Georgics" he treated a subject of which he was wholly ignorant, Plutarch on the other hand (de Aud. Poët. c. 2, vol. i. p. 36, ed. Tauchn.) says that  the " Theriaca," like the poems of Empedocles, Parmenides, and Theognis, have nothing in them of poetry but the metre. Modern critics have differed equally on this point; but practically the judgment of posterity has been pro­nounced with sufficient clearness, and his works are now scarcely ever read as poems, but merely consulted by those who are interested in points of zoological and medical antiquities : - how opposite a fate to that which has befallen Virgil's Georgics ! In reference to his style and language Bentley calls him, with great truth, " antiquarium, obsoleta et casca verba studiose venantem, et vel sui saeculi lectoribus difficilem et obscurum." (Cambridge Museum Criticum, vol. i. p. 371.)
The following are the titles of Nicander's lost works, as collected by Fabricius (Bibl. Gr. vol. iv. p. 348, Harles) : 
1. Αἰτωλικά , a prose work, con­sisting of at least three books ; quoted by Athenaeus (pp. 296, 477), Macrobius (Saturn, v. 21), Harpocration (Lex. s. v.Θύστιον ), and other writers
2. Γεωργικά,  a poem in hexameter verse, consisting of at least two books, of which some long fragments remain ; mentioned by Cicero (de Orat. i. 16), Suidas, and others, and frequently quoted by Athenaeus (pp. 52, 133, 371, &c.). 
3. Γλῶσσαι , a work in at least three books ; quoted by Athenaeus (p. 288) and other writers.
 4. ῾Ετεροιούμενα, a poem in hexameter verse, in five books, mentioned by Suidas, and quoted by Athenaeus (pp. 82, 305), Antoninus Liberalis (Metamorph cc. 12, 35), and other writers. It was perhaps in reference to this work that Didymus applied to Nicander the epithet " fabulosus" (Macrob. Saturn, v. 22.). 
5. Εὐρωπία, or Περὶ Εὐρώπης, in at least five books, quoted by Athenaeus (p. 296), Stephanus Byzantinus (s. v. ῎Αθως ), and others. 
6. ῾Ημίαμβοι, mentioned by the scholiast on the Thteriaca. 
7. Θηβαικά, in at least three books, mentioned by the scholiast on the Theriaca, and probably alluded to by Plutarch (de Herod. Malign, c. 33, vol. v. p. 210, ed. Tauchn.). 
8.  ᾿Ιάσεων Συναγωγή, mentioned by Suidas. 
9. Κοκοφωνιακά , of which work the same passage is quoted both by Athenaeus (p. 569) and Harpocration (Lex. s. v. Πάνδημος ᾿Αφροδίτη ), though the former writer says it came from the third book, and the latter from the sixth. 
10. Μελισσουργικά  (Athen. p. 68). 
11. Νύμφοι  (Schol. Nicand. Ther.). 
 12. Οἰταικά, a poem in hexameter verse, in at least two books, quoted by Athenaeus (pp. 282, 329, 411). 
13. ᾿Οφιακόν  (Schol. Nicand. Ther.; comp. Suid. s. v. Πάμφιλος.
14.  The sixth book Περιπεπτειῶν  (Athen. p. 606).
15. Περὶ Ποιητῶν (Parthen. Erot. c. 4), perhaps the same work as that quoted by the scholiast on the " Theriaca," with the title Περὶ τῶν ἐν Κοκοφῶνι Ποιητῶν; and probably the work in which Nicander tried to prove that Homer was a native of Colophon (Cramer's Anecd. Gr. Paris, iii. p. 98). 
16. The Προγνωστικά, of Hippocrates paraphrased in hexameter verse (Suid.). 
17. Σικελιά, of which the tenth book is quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus (s. v. Ζάγκλη). 
18. ῾Υάκινθος (Schol. Nicand. Ther.). 
19. ῞Υπνος (ibid.). 
20.  Περὶ Χρηστηρίων, in three books. (Suid.) , Nicander's poems have generally been published together, but sometimes separately. They were first published in Greek at the end of Dioscorides, Venet. 1499, fol. ap. Aldum Manutium ; and in a separate form, Venet. 1523, 4 to. in aedib. Aldi. Both poems were translated into Latin verse by Jo. Gorraeus, and by Euricius Cordus, and the " Theriaca" also by P. J. Steveius. The Greek paraphrase of both poems by Eutecnius first ap­peared in Bandini's edition, Florent. 1764, 8vo. The most complete and valuable edition that has hitherto appeared is J. G. Schneider's, who published the Alexipharmaca in 1792, Halae, 8vo., and the Theriaca in 1816, Lips. 8vo.; containing a Latin translation, the scholia, the paraphrase by Eutecnius, the editor's annotations, and the frag­ments of Nicander's lost works. The last edition is that published by Didot, together with Oppian and Marcellus Sidetes, in his collection of Greek classical authors, Paris, large 8vo. 1846, edited by F. S. Lehrs, and at present (it is believed) unfinished. The "Theriaca" were published in the Cambridge " Museum Criticum " (vol. i. p. 370, &c.), with Bentley's emendations, copied from the margin of a copy of Gorraeus's edition, which once (apparently) belonged to Dr. Mead, and is now preserved in the British Museum. (Fabric. Bibl. Gr. vol. iv. p. 345, &c.ed. Harles ; Haller, Biblioth. Botan. and Biblioth. Medic. Pract. ; Sprengel, Hist. de la Méd. ; Choulant, Handb. der Bücherkunde fur die Aeltere Medicin.) (CHAPITRE 85)  

Νίκανδρος, Ξενοφάνους, Κολοφώνιος, κατὰ δέ τινας Αἰτωλός: ἅμα γραμματικός τε καὶ ποιητὴς καὶ ἰατρός, γεγονὼς κατὰ τὸν νέον Ἄτταλον, ἤγουν τὸν τελευταῖον τὸν Γαλατονίκην, ὃν Ῥωμαῖοι κατέλυσαν. ἔγραψε Θηριακά, Ἀλεξιφάρμακα, Γεωργικά, Ἑτεροιουμένων βιβλία ε', Ἰάσεων συναγωγήν, Προγνωστικὰ δι' ἐπῶν: μεταπέφρασται δὲ ἐκ τῶν Ἱπποκράτους Προγνωστικῶν: Περὶ χρηστηρίων πάντων βιβλία τρία: καὶ ἄλλα πλεῖστα ἐπικῶς. 

NYMPHODORUS (Νυμφόδωρος ). Of Syracuse, likewise an historian, seems to have lived about the time of Philip and Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He was the author of a work entitled ᾿Ασίας Περίπλους (Athen. vi. p. 265, vii. p. 321, xiii. p. 609), and of a second entitled Περὶ τῶν ἐν Σικελίᾳ θαυμαζομένων (Athen. i. p. 19, xiii. p. 588), which is sometimes simply referred to by the title Περὶ Σικελίας. (Athen. viii. p. 331, x. p. 452 ; Schol. ad Theocrit. i. 69, v. 15, ad Horn. Od. μ. 301, where, instead of Μεμψήδωρος, we should read Νυμφόδωρος ; comp. Aelian, H. A. xi. 20.) Aelian (H. A. xvi. 34) quotes a state ment from Nymphodorus relating to the use the Sardinians made of goat-skins, and from which it might be inferred that he also wrote on Sardinia, but this may have been a mere digression introduced into his work on Sicily. (Plin. Elench. libb. iii. v. vii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. ; Tertull. De An. 57 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. ᾿Αθύρας ; Harpocrat., Hesych. s. v. αἰγίδας;  comp. Ebert, Dissert. Sicul. pp. 155— 222.) [L. S.]  (CHAPITRE 89) 

PHERECRATES (Φερεκράτης), of Athens, was one of the best poets of the Old Comedy (Anon. de Com. p. xxviii.). He was contemporary with the comic poets Cratinus, Crates, Eupolis, Plato, and Aristophanes (Suid. s. v.Πλάτων), being somewhat younger than the first two, and somewhat older than the others. One of the most important testimonies respecting him is evidently corrupted, but can be amended very well ; it is as follows (Anon, de Com. p. xxix) : — <Φερεκράτης ᾿Αθηναῖος νικᾷ ἐπὶ θεάτρον γινόμενος, ὁ δὲ ὑποκριτὴς ἐζήλωκε Κράτηρα. Καὶ αὖ τοῦ μὲν λοιδορεῖν ἀπέστη πράγματα δὲ εἰσηγούμενος καινὰ ηὐδοκίμει γενόμενος εὑρετικὸς μύθων. Dobree corrects the passage thus : Φερεκράτης ᾿Αθηναῖος νικᾷ ἐπὶ Θεοδώρου, γενόμενος δὲ ὑποκριτὴς ἐζήλωκε Κράτηρα. κ.τ.λ. ; and his emendation is approved by Meineke and others of our best critical scholars. From the passage, thus read, we learn that Pherecrates gained his first victory in the archonship of Theodorus, B. C. 438 ; and that he imitated the style of Crates, whose actor he had been. From the latter part of the quotation, and from an important passage in Aristotle (Poet. 5), we see what was the character of the alteration in comedy, commenced by Crates, and carried on by Pherecrates ; namely, that they very much modified the coarse satire and vituperation of which this sort of poetry had previously been the vehicle (what Aristotle calls ἡ ἰαμβικὴ ἰδέα), and constructed their comedies on the basis of a regular plot, and with more dramatic action. Pherecrates did not, however, abstain altogether from personal satire, for we see by the fragments of his plays that he attacked Alcibiades, the tragic poet Melanthius, and others (Ath. viii. p. 343, c., xii. p. 538, b.; Phot. Lex. p. 626, 10). But still, as the fragments also show, his chief characteristics were, ingenuity in his plots and elegance in diction: hence he is called ᾿Αττικώτατος (Ath. vi. p. 268, e ; Steph. Byz. p. 43 : Suid. s.v. ᾿Αθηναία ). His language is not, however, so severely pure as that of Aristophanes and other comic poets of the age, as Meineke shows by several examples.
Of the invention of the new metre, which was named, after him, the Pherecratean, he himself boasts in the following lines (ap. Hephaest. x. 5, xv. 15, Schol in Ar. Nub. 563):—-
ἄνδρες, πρόσχετε τὀν νοῦν
ἐξευρήματι καινῷ
συμπτύκτοις ἀναπαίστοις
The system of the verse, as shown in the above example, is
_ _ _ UU _ _
which may be best explained as a choriambus, with a spondee for its base, and a long syllable for its termination. Pherecrates himself seems to call it an anapaestic metre ; and it might be scanned as such : but he probably only means that he used it in the parabases, which were often called ana­paests, because they were originally in the anapaestic metre (in fact we hold the anapaestic verse to be, in its origin, choriambic). Hephaestion ex­plains the metre as an heplithemimeral antispastic, or, in other words, an antispastic dimeter catalectio (Hephaest. ll. c.; comp. Gaisford's Notes). The metre is very frequent in the choruses of the Greeis tragedians, and in Horace, as, for example,
Grato Pyrrha sub antro.
There is a slight difference in the statements respecting the number of his plays. The Anonymous writer on comedy says eighteen, Suidas and Eudocia sixteen. The extant titles, when properly sifted, are reduced to eighteen, of which some are doubtful. The number to which Meineke reduces them is fifteen, namely, ῎Αγριοι, Αὐτόμολοι, Γᾶες, Δουλοδιδάσκαλος, ᾿Επιπλήσμων ἢ Θάλαττα, ᾿Ιπνὸς ἢ Παννυχίς, Κοριαννώ, Κραπάταλοι, Λῆροι, Μυρμηκάνθρωποι, Πετάλη, Τυραννίς, Ψευδηρακλῆς. Of these the most interesting is the v῎Αγριοι, on account of the reference to it in Plato's Protagoras (p. 327, d.), which has given rise to much discussion. Heinrichs has endeavoured to show that the subject of the play related to those corruptions of the art of music of which the comic poets so frequently complain, and that one of the principal performers was the Centaur Cheiron, who expounded the laws of the ancient music to a chorus of wild men , that is, either Centaurs or Satyrs ; and he meets the obvious objection, that the term μισάνθρωποι, which Plato applies to the Chorus, is not suitable to describe Satyrs or Centaurs, by changing it into ἡμιάνθρωποι (Demonstratio et Restitutio loci corrupti e Platonis Protagora, Kiliae, 1813, and also in his work Epimenides aus Creta, &c. pp. 188, 192, foil.). The same view is adopted by Ast and Jacobs, but with a less violent change in Plato's text, namely, μιξάνθρωποι. The common reading is, however, successfully defended by Meineke, who shows that there is no sufficient reason for sup posing that Cheiron appeared in the ῎Αγριοι  at all, or that the Chorus were not really what the title and the allusion in Plato would naturally lead us to suppose, namely, wild men. The play seems to have been a satire on the social corruptions of Athens, through the medium of the feelings excited at the view of them in men who are uncivilized themselves and enemies to the civilized part of mankind. The play was acted at the Lenaea, in the month of February, B. C 420 (Plat. I. c.; Ath. v. p. 218, d.). The subjects of the remaining plays are fully discussed by Meineke. The name of Pherecrates is sometimes confounded with Crates and with Pherecydes. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. ii. pp. 473 - 476 ; Meineke, Frag. Com. Graec. vol. i. pp. 66 - 86, vol. ii. pp. 252 - 360 ; Bergk, Reliq. Comoed. Att. Antiq. pp. 284 - 306). [P. S.] (CHAPITRE 94) 

Φερεκράτης, Ἀθηναῖος, κωμικός: ὃς Ἀλεξάνδρῳ συνεστράτευσεν. ἐδίδαξε δράματα ιζ'. Φερεκράτης Πετάλῃ γράφει.

PERSAEUS (Περσαῖος), surnamed Cittieus (Κιτιεύς), from his native town Cittium, in the south of Crete, was a favourite disciple of Zeno, the stoic, who was also of Cittium. Suidas (s. v.) states that he was also named Dorotheas, and that his father's name was Demetrius. Diogenes Laërtius mentions that it was doubtful whether he was merely an intimate friend of Zeno's, or whether, after having been the slave of Antigonus Gonatas, and tutor to his son Alcyoneus, and then presented by that monarch to Zeno as a copyist, he had been freed by the philosopher. The opinion that he had been Zeno's slave prevails extensively in later writers, as in A. Gellius (ii. 18). But the notion is contradicted by the general current of his life, and seems to have originated in a remark of Bion Borysthenites. Bion having seen a bronze statue of Persaeus, bearing the inscription, Περσαῖον Ζήνωνος Κιτιέα, remarked that this was a mistake, for Περσαῖον Ζήνωνος οἰκιτιέα. (Athen. iv. p. .162, d.) But from the sal nigrum which charac­terises Bion's sayings, this seems nothing more than a sneer at the servility which he thus insinuated that Persaeus, with whom he had come into rivalry at the court of Antigonus, manifested in his demeanour to Zeno. Indeed, if Persaeus had actually been Zeno's slave, the sarcasm would have been pointless. We learn from Diogenes Laertius, that Zeno lived in the same house with Persaeus, and he narrates an incident, which certainly supports the insinuation of Bion. The same story is told by Athenaeus (xiii. p. 607, a. b.), on the authority of Antigonus the Carystian, somewhat differently, and not so much to Zeno's credit. Persaeus was in the prime of life in the 130th Olympiad, B. C. 260. Antigonus Gonatas had sent for Zeno, between B. C. 277 and 271 (Clinton, F. H. vol. ii. p. 368, note i), when the philosopher was in his eighty-first year. Zeno excused himself, but sent Persaeus and Philonides, with whom went also the poet Aratus, who had received instructions from Persaeus at Athens. Persaeus seems to have been in high favour with Antigonus, and to have guided the monarch in his choice of literary associates, as we learn from a sneer of Bion's, recorded by Laertius. At last, unhappily for himself, he was appointed to a chief command in Corinth, and hence he is classed by Aeliun (V. H. iii. 17), among those philosophers who have taken an active part in public affairs. According to Athenaeus (iv. p. 162, c), who has no high opinion of his morality, his dissipation led to the loss of Corinth, which was taken by Aratus the Sicyonian, B. C. 243. Pausanias (ii. 8, vii. 8) states that he was then slain. Plutarch doubtfully represents him as escaping to Cenchreae. But this may have been to put into his mouth when alive, what Athenaeus says of him when dead, that he who had been taught by Zeno to consider philosophers as the only men fit to be generals, had been forced to alter his opinion, being corrected by a Sicyonian youth.
We find a list of his writings in Laertius, in which we are startled to find Θυέστης. Athenaeus (iv. 140, p. 6, e) agrees with Laertius, in attribut­ing to him a work, entitled Πολιτεία Λακωνική. He also gives a general view of the contents of a work bearing his name, entitled Συμποτικοὶ Διάλογοι (iv. p. 162, e.). But that the favourite pupil of Zeno, and the trusted friend of Antigonus for many years, could have written such a work as he describes, seems incredible. He very probably did write a book bearing the title ῾Υπομνήματα Συμπότικα (as stated by Laertius), on the model of the Συμπόσιον  of Plato ; hence the  Περὶ Γάμου and Περὶ ᾿Ερώτων, mentioned by Laertius as separate treatises of Persaeus. But, being the friend of Antigonus, he was deemed to be an enemv to  Greek freedom ; hence the inveterate enmity of Menedemus (Diog. Laërt. ii. 143), and hence spurious productions of a contemptible character were probably assigned to him. Lipsius, however (Manuduct. ad Stoic. Philosoph. xii. 1), seems to be of an opinion quite the reverse. Suidas and Eudocia (p. 362) state that he wrote a history, which may refer to his political writings. He also wrote, according te Laertius, against the laws of Plato. Of his philosophical opinions, we know hardly anything. It is reasonable to conjecture that he adhered closely to the tenets of Zeno. Accordingly, we find him, on one occasion, convicting Ariston of inconsistency in not adhering in practice to his dogma, that the wise man was opinionless (ἀδόξαστος). We find him, however, if we can trust Laertius, agreeing with Ariston in his doctrine of indifference (ἀδιαφορία ), and himself convicted of inconsistency by Antigonus - an incident which has been ingeniously expanded by Themistius. (Orat. xxxii. p. 358.) Cicero (de Nat. Deor. i. 15, where the old reading was Perseus) censures an opinion of his that divinity was ascribed not only to men who had improved the arts of life, but even to those material substances which are of use to mankind. Meursius (de Cypro,ii. p. 167) thinks that this is taken from a work of his entitled ᾿Ηθικαὶ Σχολαί  mentioned by Laërtius. Minucius Felix (Octav. p. 22, ed. Lugd. Bat. 1652), alludes also to this opinion, but he seems to have derived his knowledge from Cicero, as the illus­trations are Roman, and not Greek, as we might have expected. Dio Chrysostom (Orat. liii.) states that following the example of Zeno, Persaeus, while commenting on Homer, did not discuss his general merits, but attempted to prove that he had written κατὰ δοξάν, and not κατὰ ἀληθείαν. (Comp. Diog. Laert. vii., with Lipsius, Meursius. ll. cc., and Fabric. Bibl. Graec, vol. iii. p. 570.) [W. M. G.] (CHAPITRE 86) 

Περσαῖος, Κιτιεύς, φιλόσοφος Στωϊκός: ἐπεκλήθη δὲ καὶ Δωρόθεος. ἦν δὲ ἐπὶ τῶν χρόνων Ἀντιγόνου τοῦ Γονατᾶ υἱοῦ Δημητρίου, μαθητὴς καὶ θρεπτὸς Ζήνωνος τοῦ φιλοσόφου. Ἱστορίαν. (SUIDAS) 

PHILON (Φίλων) Of athens. While Demetrius prevailed at Athens, Sophocles of the Simian district (Σουνιεύς), got a law passed, ordaining that no philo sopher should teach in Athens, without the express consent of the boule and the people, on pain of death. This had the effect of driving Theophrastus, and all the other philosophers, from Athens. (Diog. Laërt. v. 38.) Hence Athenaeus erroneously represents this law as expressly banishing them (xiii. p. 610. f. ; compare Pollux, ix. 42, where the law is said to have been aimed at the Sophists). This law was opposed by Philon, a friend of Aristotle, and defended by Demochares, the nephew of Demosthenes. (Athen. I. c.) The exertions of Philon were successful, and next year the philosophers returned, Demochares being sentenced to pay a fine of five talents. (Diog. Laert. I. c., where for Φιλλίωνος read Φιλώνος.) The date of this transaction is doubtful. Alexis (apud Athen. l. c.) merely mentions Demetrius, without enabling us to judge whether it is Phalereus, B. C. 316, or Poliorcetes, B. C. 307. Clinton leans to the former opinion. (F. H. vol. ii. p. 169.) But he gives references to the opinions of others, who think it referable to the time of Demetrius Poliorcetes - to whom may be added Ritter. (Hist. of Ancient Philosophy, vol. iii. p. 379. Engl. Transl.) Jonsius (De Script. Hist. Phil.) places it as low as about B. C. 300. It is not improbable that this Philon is the slave of Aristotle, whom, in his will, he ordered to receive his freedom. (Diog. Laert. v. 15.) (CHAPITRE 92)

THEODORUS CYRENAICUS, (Θεόδωρος ὁ ἄθεος)  a philosopher of the Cyrenaic school [ARISTIPPUS], to one branch of which he gave the name of " Theodorians,'' Θεοδωρεῖοι . He is usually designated by ancient writers atheus (6 &0eos), the Atheist, a name for which that of theus (Θέος ) was afterwards substituted. He was apparently a native of Cyrene (comp. Diog. Laert. ii. 103), and was a disciple of the younger Aristippus (ib. ii. 86), who was grandson of the elder (Suidas, s. v. ᾿Αρίστιππος) and more celebrated Aristippus, by his daughter Arete [ARISTIPPUS ; ARETE]. Theodore belonged to the age of Alexander and his successors, a circum­stance which, as well as the opposite character of his opinions, distinguishes him from the subject of the preceding notice. He heard the lectures of a number of philosophers beside Aristippus ; as Anniceris [ANNICERIS], and Dionysius the dialectician (Laërt. ii. 98), Zeno of Citium, Bryson, and Pyrrhon (Suidas, s. v. Θεόδωρος) ; but not Crates, as Fabricius (Bibl. Graec. vol. iii. p. 189) has from a hasty and inaccurate interpretation of a passage in Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 23) erroneously stated. Nor could he have been, as Suidas states (s. v. Σωκράτης), a hearer of Socrates. He was banished from Cyrene, but on what occasion is not stated (Laërt. ii. 103) ; and it is from the saying recorded of him on this occasion, " Ye men of Cyrene, ye do ill in banishing me from Cyrene to Greece " (ib.), as well as from his being a disciple of Aristippus, that we infer that he was a native of Cyrene. Of his subsequent history we have no connected account; but unconnected anecdotes of him show that he was at Athens, where he narrowly escaped being cited before the court of Areiopagus. The influence, however, of Demetrius Phalereus shielded him (ib. ii. 101) ; and this inci­dent may therefore probably be placed during Demetrius 'ten years' administration at Athens, B. C. 317 —307 [DEMETRIUS, literary, No. 28]. As Theodore was banished from Athens, and was afterwards in the service of Ptolemy son of Lagus, first king of the Macedonian dynasty in Egypt, it is not unlikely that he shared the overthrow and exile of Demetrius. The account of Amphicrates cited by Laertius (ii. 101), that he was condemned to drink hemlock and so died, is doubtless an error. While in the service of Ptolemy, Theodore was sent on an embassy to Lysimachus, whom he offended by the freedom of his remarks. One answer which he made to a threat of crucifixion which Lysimachus had used, has been celebrated by many ancient writers (Cic. Quaest, Tusc. i. 43 ; Senec. de Tranq. An. c. 14 ; Val. Max. vi. 2, extern. 3) : —" Employ such threats to those cour­tiers of yours; for it matters not to Theodore whether he rots on the ground or in the air." From the court or camp of Lysimachus he returned apparently to that of Ptolemy (Diog. Laert. ii. 102). We read also of his going to Corinth with a number of his disciples (ibid.): but this was perhaps only a transient visit during his residence at Athens. He returned at length to Cyrene, and lived there, says Diogenes Laertius (ii. 103), with Marius. This Roman name is very questionable ; and Grantmesnil (apud Menag. Obs. in Diog. Laërt. I. c.) not improbably conjectures that we should read Magas, who was stepson of Ptolemy the son of Lagus, and ruled over Cyrene for fifty years (from B. C. 308 to B. C. 258), either as viceroy or king. The account of Laertius leads to the inference that Theodore ended his days at Cyrene. Athenaeus (xiii. p. 611, a) states that he died a violent death, but this is probably only a repetition of the erroneous statement of Amphicrates already noticed. Various characteristic anecdotes of Theodore are preserved by the ancients (especially by Laërtius, ii. 97-  103, 116; Plutarch, De Animi Tranquill. Opp. vol. vii. p. 829, De Exsilio, Opp. vol. viii. p. 391, ed. Reiske; Val. Max. l. c.; Philo Jud. Quod omnis probus liber, c. 18, vol. ii. p. 465, ed. Mangey, p. 884, ed. Pfeiffer. s. Paris, vol. v. p. 295, ed. Richter, Leipsic, 1828; Suidas, s. v. ῞Ηρα ), from which he appears to have been a man of keen and ready wit, unrestrained either by fear or a sense of decency.
It has been already noticed that Theodore was the founder of that branch of the Cyrenaic sect which was called after him " Theodorei" (Θεοδώρειοι:), " Theodoreans." The general character­istics of the Cyrenaic philosophy are described elsewhere [ARISTIPPUS]. The opinions of Theodore, as we gather them from the perplexed statement of Diogenes Laërtius (ii. 98, foil.) partook of the lax character of the Cyrenaic school. He taught that the great end of human life is to obtain joy and avoid grief, the one the fruit of prudence, the other of folly ; that prudence and justice are good, their opposites evil; that pleasure and pain are indifferent. He made light of friendship and patriotism, and affirmed that the world was his country. He taught that there was nothing really disgraceful in theft, adultery, or sacrilege ; but that they were branded only by public opinion, which had been formed in order to restrain fools. But the great charge against him was atheism. w He did away with all opinions respecting the Gods," says Laërtius (ib.), but some critics doubt whether he was absolutely an atheist, or simply denied the existence of the deities of popular belief. The charge of atheism is sustained by the popular designation of Theodoras " Atheus," by the authority of Cicero (de Nat. Deor. i. 1), Laërtius (/. c.), Plutarch (De Placit. Philos. i. 7), Sextus Empiricus (Pyrrhon. Hypotyp. lib. iii. p. 182, ed. Fabric. 1718, p. 172,ed. Bekker, 1842), and some of the Christian Fathers; while some other authorities (e. g. Clem. Alex. Protrept. ad Gentes, p. 7, ed. Sylburg. pp. 20, 21, ed. Pott. vol. i, p. 20, ed. Klotz. Leipsic, 1831) speak of him as only rejecting the popular theology. The question is dis­cussed and the authorities cited by Reimmaim (Hist. Atheismi, sect. ii. c. xxiv. § 3), and Brucker (Hist. Crit. Philos. pars ii. lib. ii. c. iii. § 11). Theodore wrote a book Περὶ Θεῶν, De Diis, which Laertius who had seen it, says (ii. 97) was not to be contemned ; and he adds that it was said to have been the source of many of the statements or arguments of Epicurus. According to Suidas (s. v. Θεόδωρος) he wrote many works both on the doc­trines of his sect and on other subjects. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. iii. pp. 189, 615, vol. x. pp. 373, 385.) (CHAPITRE 92) 

ZENON (Ζήνων ὁ ᾿Επικουρείος). An Epicurean philosopher, a native of Sidon. He was a contemporary of Cicero, who heard him when at Athens. He was sometimes termed Coryphaeus Epicureorum (Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 21, 33, 34). He seems to have been noted for the disrespectful terms in which he spoke of other philosophers. For instance, he called Socrates the Attic buffoon. (Cic. de Nat. D. i. 34.) He was a disciple of Apollodorus (Diog. Laërt. x. 25), and is described by Diogenes Laërtius as a clear-headed thinker and perspicuous expounder of his views. Cicero bestows upon him similar commendation (distincte, graviter, ornate disputabat, de Nat. Deor. i. 21). Zenon held that happiness consisted in the enjoyment of present pleasures, accompanied by a confident expectation of enjoying them throughout the whole or the greater part of life. (Tusc. iii. 1 7.) Poseidonius wrote a separate treatise in confutation of his views. (Proclus ad I. Euclid, iii.) (CHAPITRE 92)